This document provides a commentary on the Scheme of Work for Cross-Curricular ICT and suggests ways in which ICT might be used to enhance teaching and learning in all subjects. Learning from ICT is where pupils learn things that they can apply in a non-ICT situation (such as an examination); learning with ICT is where the learning is dependent on ICT, as in computer-based modelling. Underlying assumptions include:
In response to these factors ICT and the educational process are moving into another phase of development (see: http://www.dfes.gov.uk/ictinschools/).
ICT capability is central to the development of ICT within curriculum subjects. ICT capability for pupils is defined in the Programmes of Study for the National Curriculum for ICT, the most significant section of which is Key Stage 3. During this stage pupils:
This could be seen as a programme for enhanced cognitive development, adding ICT skills to existing subject material to improve structure and content and to produce better understanding. The Programme of Study for ICT is based around five themes:
ICT capability may be seen as comprising two main parts:
ICT skills may be broken into four parts:
A number of these techniques and skills are listed in the Scheme of Work for Cross-Curricular ICT and many of them can be taken as starting points for practical work.
ICT capability is developed by repeated practice of the techniques and processes intrinsic to each software application. Pupils will develop ICT skills and subject knowledge by using ICT in a wide range of contexts and by applying it to unfamiliar and more complex problems. They will do this to facilitate and enhance their learning. The challenge is not to advance either ICT skills or subject skills separately but to combine the two and benefit both; this is sometimes described as ‘embedding’ ICT skills in the curriculum. Pupils will achieve this mainly through the leadership of their teachers who are in charge of the learning process. Pupils may benefit from ICT in a classroom with a single computer (probably with a projector and screen or IWB), from visits to a computer suite or from homework and prep conducted outside class. As long as teachers are familiar with ICT they should be able to help their pupils make good use of it in all of these situations.
ICT skills and techniques have a generic quality and may be transferred between subjects, but there will be differences of approach and emphasis and no subject should expect its own set of ICT capabilities to be developed elsewhere. Subject teachers may thus be obliged, at times, to develop ICT capability within their subjects, in other words, in some degree, to teach ICT. It is unlikely that the skills and knowledge specific to a particular subject will be fully developed elsewhere and the line of approach, nuance or finesse may be different. One example of this might be the use of the spell checker, grammar checker and thesaurus, which raise a number of issues in English but which are merely tools in other subjects. Similarly, in developing a presentation one generally needs only the bare bones of language, bullet points to support a talk rather than complete sentences.
When using ICT teachers should keep the focus on the subject itself and not allow it to interfere with learning, for example by spending too much time on technicalities or appearance rather than content. Teachers should encourage autonomy in the use of ICT by pupils and critical reflection on the benefits of using ICT to tackle particular problems. Pupils should see, through their learning, the benefits of ICT and use it without having to be told. Teachers should be convinced that ICT provides an appropriate way to tackle a particular topic or process and pupils should be able to recognise the benefits to their learning by using it.
The use of computers in teaching and learning is completely different to the way they are used in offices and factories (GCSE and A Level ICT courses deal more with these aspects). The following features of ICT have been identified as most relevant to education:
Additional features of ICT also contribute to its usefulness:
ICT can be used, therefore:
These features should make ICT a routine choice for a wide range of tasks within all subjects.
Software for education divides into two types, general and special purpose. General purpose software includes word processors, spreadsheets and presentation graphics; special purpose software includes subject CD-ROMs, specialised web pages and applications such as modelling, design and GIS. Each subject will have its own set of resources and the balance between general and special purpose software will vary. The most basic features of software can be used to good effect in teaching and learning, there is rarely any need for rocket science (unless that’s what you are teaching!). For example: tables in a word processor, charts from a spreadsheet, a few slides from a presentation, a select list of websites, images from a digital camera. For more specialised or advanced work special-purpose software may add explanatory power, improved accessibility or analytical tools.
ICT tools that are generally available in schools and at home include:
Each of these tools will have a different amount and style of use in each curriculum subject. The Scheme of Work for Cross-Curricular ICT provides a list of the techniques that teachers and pupils will need in order to use them effectively for teaching and learning. Departments will have to work out which of these techniques are most appropriate for their needs and then figure out ways to use them effectively in their own teaching and learning.
The subject task should be worthwhile and not something contrived as a means of ‘doing ICT’. Similarly, the ICT component should make some contribution to pupils’ ICT knowledge and skills, though it may be similar to other exercises done elsewhere. When teachers and pupils are fully familiar with ICT the connection with subject learning should be almost effortless or instinctive. ICT leads to a ‘product’ and there should be a definite goal or purpose to an exercise. There will, typically, be a ‘learning gap’ between what pupils already know and what teachers hope that they will achieve, in cognitive terms, at the end of the exercise; ICT should help to bridge that gap in a helpful and constructive way and should not interfere with learning. Teachers within a subject need to know the key components of the ICT tools that are available to them and to use these consistently and creatively to meet their aims.
Teachers must decide how much support or ‘scaffolding’ they will provide for a particular exercise. Will it, for example, be ‘constructive-directed’ or ‘constructive-creative’? For example, a teacher might provide up to three levels of support for a task such as essay-writing:
Pupils might choose the level of help for themselves or the teacher might provide guidance. This approach provides scope for differentiation between pupils within a class.
One of the most powerful general purpose software tools available for education is probably the web design program, for example ‘FrontPage’ or ‘Dreamweaver’. These applications are similar to word processors in the way they allow text and images to be assembled but they differ in the fact that they are designed to create output for web pages. Web design applications include many sophisticated features but they can be used to create simple documents suitable for use by pupils. These might be made available through a school website, through a school intranet or through a teacher’s own web page. Many applications such as word processors, spreadsheets, presentation graphics and desk top publishing programs can create web pages so it may not be necessary to use a web design program. In addition, modern web browsers can open documents produced in word processors, spreadsheets, etc., so teachers can work in familiar applications and link them to simple web pages.
The day may come when all teachers have their own web site to help with the management of their pupils’ learning; pupils will take it for granted that this is so. Sample applications for web pages might include:
The contents of pages can be authored with different levels of sophistication so that different types of pupil can be catered for, from ‘gifted’ to ‘special needs’. Material can be reworked, refined and updated to serve different groups and to match changing circumstances; with electronic publishing pupils will always get the latest version of a teacher’s thinking. Thus through the use of ICT teachers can provide differentiation by resource alongside differentiation by task, by response and by support. Pupils absent from school could, for a short time at least, keep up with their lessons even though they are unable to attend classes. Some pupils may find ICT a fruitful and less threatening environment than a classroom. Teachers could save time and effort by sharing these web resources, dividing topics and tasks between them, both within a single school or between a number of schools.
Beyond web page design tools are more sophisticated applications such as the integrated learning system (ILS) and the virtual learning environment (VLE), which include on-line assessment and personalised learning in the form of pathways through the material. Many tertiary-level courses are now delivered through a VLE and they will almost certainly have an impact on schools in the next five years. A number of schools are already experimenting with their own VLE and the initial response from teachers appears to be very positive. It is surely indisputable that pupils in school should be taught to use these tools and to learn the style of learning they require because they will use them at university and in their ‘life-long’ learning.
One clear benefit of web pages is that they are designed to be accessible from any computer with access to the internet, typically within school and at home or in other locations such as internet cafes and hotels. Some people refer to this as ‘anytime anywhere learning’ and believe that pupils will have greater freedom to learn in ways that suit them; others suggest that learning is a difficult process and is best confined to a fixed, preferably quiet place and at a regular, routine time. Whatever one’s views on this, one can see the benefits of having access to the same learning resources in a range of locations without the need to carry around a large number of heavy books.
One model that may be used to explain the use of ICT in learning is the Tasks-Abilities-Features model (TAF). This requires initial consideration of the potential for action amongst a group of pupils by considering their existing skills and knowledge, and of the structure for action provided by the task itself. An example might be the use of the World Wide Web for researching a topic. The teacher devises activities that are designed to bring potential and structure together, for example by using ICT for initial exposition and also for completion of the pupil task. Pupils may have basic search skills for the web but will need to develop them if they are to complete the task satisfactorily. The features of ICT will make it easier to support the learner with online materials, possibly of a graded nature, and a ‘scaffold’ of support such as an outline or a list of search terms or website addresses. The TAF model is completed by a reflective stage and improved pupil abilities (learning).
One way to view the role of ICT is to break the teaching and learning process into:
The constructive type can be further broken down into:
Strategies aided by ICT:
The six key skills in the National Curriculum are: literacy, numeracy, ICT, problem solving, working with others and improving own learning. Three of these are closely linked to existing subjects. ICT, as we have seen, will be learned through a number of subjects and the other three key skills may also be developed through the use of ICT. Teachers should bear these skills in mind when planning their lessons with ICT and may choose to incorporate them in their schemes of work.
Information literacy is a nexus of information processing skills that has been developed by various academics and library associations. According to the American Library Association, individuals must learn to: “recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information” . Information is so abundant in our modern academic, professional and personal lives that information handling skills have become indispensable in order that we can make the best possible decisions. In combination with VLEs, information literacy skills are playing an increasing role in higher education and some prior preparation in school would seem to be appropriate. This is especially so in a school where almost 100 per cent of pupils go on to university and where sixth form education is seen as a preparation for this (as GCSE is a preparation for sixth form, years 7, 8 and 9 are a preparation for GCSE, and so on).
These resources and techniques are closely linked with ICT so they are naturally included here, but information literacy is broader in scope than information technology. For further information visit the ‘Big6’ website or search for ‘PLUS Herring’ and ‘information literacy’. Like ICT, information literacy should not be seen as extraneous to existing curricula but rather as an intrinsic part, woven into them.
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning a key factor in the learning process. If greater use is to be made of ICT then the question arises as to how it might be assessed and how it might affect the assessment process. If an audit were to be made of ICT skills across the curriculum then one would expect to know not only whether it was being used but also how well and to what extent. To do this in a meaningful way would be very difficult. The problem for individual teachers is to separate out the learning of subject content from ICT skills and focus attention on the key elements of their curriculum. Some topics, for example, may be inseparable from ICT (learning with ICT) while in others it is a means to an end (learning through ICT). The focus of attention should be on higher order skills such as understanding, interpretation, range and appropriateness of sources, etc.
Another issue is the extent to which ICT is used to record progress in learning. The use of ICT for summative assessment (reports and grades) is well established and it is becoming more common to use it also in normative assessments. Many school database packages such as SIMS, CMIS and Phoenix now include assessment modules with detailed criteria based on the national curriculum. In some schools electronic recording of assessment has become the norm and paper-based mark books have become optional. Even without such modules it is feasible for teachers to devise assessments using ICT that include specific learning objectives, achievement criteria and personal learning goals – a fairly simple form can accomplish this. Such assessment sheets could be used by pupils for evaluation and reflection and by the teacher in the grading and reporting processes.
To simplify a complex subject, knowledge may be divided into three types:
The role of ICT in acquiring and developing knowledge might be considered from the perspective of various learning theories:
Reinforcement by positive feedback; simple testing programs, mainly suited to commercial training.
Piaget emphasised the role of experience in allowing the mind to pass from one stage to another during its development. Learners are provided with experiences that conflict with their own naïve ideas, thus providing ‘cognitive conflict’ and intellectual advance. This requires reflection on the new concepts.
Social interactions are seen as the source of learning rather than individual experience. Knowledge is created in the interaction between people before it becomes internalised by the individual learner. This implies that collaborative learning or group work may be valuable in some contexts and ICT can play a part here. Teachers can provide ‘scaffolding’ to support learning, which can be taken away when learners can work independently.
This suggests that learning is valid in the context where the learning took place but not necessarily in other situations. Experience of academic study can be transferred to other schools and universities but not necessarily to the workplace. ICT may allow tasks to be more ‘authentic’ or real-world so knowledge can be transferred.
Gardner proposes seven types of intelligence (linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal). The multimodality (multimedia) aspect of ICT can support alternative ways of learning e.g. by pictures and sound.
Some of these ideas are contained in a practical synthesis known as the ‘Do-Review-Learn-Apply cycle:
Theory will be replaced by practical craft knowledge of teaching but these ideas may be useful when considering new ideas such as those associated with ICT.
The outcome of the strategies and activities described above should be an ‘ICT Capable School’. In such a school:
In addition:
Schools are encouraged to develop ICT-capable thinking and stress the importance of:
There should be some way of knowing how successful the programme of using ICT across the curriculum has been and of ensuring that further progress is made in the future. The following items might provide some guidance on the degree of success.
Each department might absorb and understand the level descriptors for the National Curriculum for ICT and include its use in their scheme of work. The incorporation of ICT in schemes of work should be strictly to serve the teaching and learning of the subject. This will provide documentation to serve as a basis for assessing progress across the school.
Teachers should use ICT as a matter of course and it should cease to be an issue. Teachers have a sense of duty to provide the best teaching they can and they should recognise that this will increasingly involve the use of ICT. Professional pride and an awareness of what is going on elsewhere should drive teachers to innovate and adopt new methods.
ICT raises some difficulties for the assessment process but it can also help it by providing electronic documents and storage. In an ICT-capable school the use of ICT for assessment would be routine and there would be no need to encourage or measure it. Teachers would include ICT as an element of assessment and reporting and would use ICT themselves to assist in the process. Such activity would provide clear evidence of the effective penetration of ICT into everyday work.
Teachers should be able to report on the ICT capability of pupils in their subjects, for example: ‘he has used ICT to extend his knowledge of the set texts and to help with his analysis of key themes’ or: ‘he has used detailed outlines to help him write his essays and must try to rely less on these and more on general ideas’. It may be some time before this is commonplace but it is one of the ways by which we will recognise that ICT capability has developed to a significant extent. (We can, for example, already comment in similar ways on games, music, cadets, DofE, etc.)
ICT might be incorporated into the teacher review process and be, effectively, a compulsory element of it. If the emphasis of the review process is teaching and learning then some mention of ICT would seem to be essential but the degree of involvement will inevitably vary between departments and from teacher to teacher. One outcome of the teacher review process might be to use more (or less!) ICT.
Rather than start with specific techniques like ICT it might be more productive to work towards changes in overall school culture. Such changes might involve recognition of new curriculum models and educational goals such as an increased awareness of skills and community issues running alongside more traditional knowledge. Another change might be away from a situation where teachers are purveyors of knowledge to one where they are more managers of learning, not spoon-feeders but brokers of learning programmes for more autonomous and independent learners.
The information revolution has changed the way knowledge is learned and used. As well as acquiring a basic framework, learners must be able to find knowledge in electronic sources to supplement what they know already. Teachers and pupils must be able to identify sources of information and learning programmes and use appropriate tools to process and navigate them. Workers in the ‘knowledge economy’ do not internalise all the things they need to know, rather they learn where to find the information they need to solve a particular problem and how to process it and ‘leverage’ it for their own purposes. In this world the curriculum is less of a running track and more a series of pathways through a plurality of learning programmes.